Masculinity and Femininity Symbols in South China Buddhist Temples: Psycho-Anthropological Perspective

Abstract

Studies on masculinity in the last ten years have increased along with men's awareness of themselves. The study of masculinity is in opposition to the study of femininity. In this regard, this research intersects both of them, namely the study of masculinity and femininity in the Quan Yin temple in China. This research explores the Quan Yin symbols in the Southern Chinese (Mahayana Buddhist) Temples. This study uses a psycho-anthropological perspective. This research with a qualitative approach uses data from the architecture of the Quan Yin Temple. Data collection techniques refer to ethnographic studies, namely (1) observation, (2) photography, (3) recording, and (4) interviewing. The results of the study show that the structure that appears in Quan Yin symbolism is a dyadic structure that is divided into oppositions of (i) temples with pagodas without pagodas, (ii) masculine-feminine, (iii) strong-gentle, (iv) closed (introversion)-open (extroversion), and (v) anima-animus. Meanwhile, in terms of the collective mediation function of symbolism, it is shown that Quan Yin has symbolism, which shows that Quan Yin is indeed the highest and surpasses gods or goddesses. Therefore, Quan Yin can manifest/become anything to help mankind on Earth. This research universally shows that masculinity and femininity are also present in religious symbols. Both masculinity and femininity are nondualities that cannot be separated. This concept is almost the same as yin and yang in Chinese human philosophy.

Introduction
he study of religion is a study that has attracted the attention of various researchers. In the last ten years, research on religion has been carried out by researchers from both a philosophical perspective (Wang & Cordeiro-Rodrigues, 2022;Mamarasulovich, 2022;Lippiello, 2018), psychology (Cowden, Counted, & Ho, 2022;Vieten & Lukoff, 2022;Vetter, 2022), sociology (Horii, 2022), and anthropology (Sera-Shriar, 2022). The researcher shows that religion can be studied through various perspectives. In addition, research on interdisciplinary studies on religion is also widely discussed, for example, research conducted by Argentino (2023), discusses the hyper-reality of religion in a modern context.
This research on religion and hyper-reality shows that religion cannot only be studied in the context of religion but in other fields that have contributed to the development of religious studies on a global scale.
About the study of religious contexts referring to Russel's conceptualization (2000;Morris, 2003b), philosophically it is not respecting or insulting a particular religion, but rather a critical attitude. This critical attitude shows the existence of a researcher's objectivity towards the object under study. Researchers in this context use corridors as researchers who have high 'intersubjectivity' to present results of interpretations and findings related to certain religious studies in local contexts or global contexts. In religious studies, one of the researchers who did this, for example, was Dundes as an anthropologist when researching elements of folklore about the Quran (Dundes, 2003) and folklore about the Bible (Dundes, 1999 Yin is called a goddess. In the film, she appears as a goddess wearing a white dress and sitting on a lotus (a flower similar to a lotus, but the difference is that the lotus flower is round and irregular in shape).
Quan Yin as a goddess figure is a figure that is venerated and legendary (mythological) by her supporting community in a religious context. In this case, Quan Yin appears in the context of supporters of Buddhists. Not only that, Quan Yin also appears in the form of performances by its supporting community (Pen Chen, 1999), as a form of people's love for Quan Yin. It is hoped that through these performances the love for Quan Yin will strengthen within the supporting community. In addition, this exaltation makes Quan Yin mythologized as a goddess who is compassionate towards all her people. The exaltation and mythologizing of Quan Yin gave rise to different interpretations in its supporting community. Many studies show that Quan Yin manifests itself as a woman (goddess) and then transforms into a man (god) or vice versa. This shows that the figure of Quan Yin can transform into what he wants in a certain context or condition (Blofeld, 1978;Chün-Fangyü, 2001;Dudbridge, 2004;Bailey, 2009;Idema, 2008;Levine, 2013). For this reason, the Quan Yin symbol found in temples or the community's cognition system is a symbol of dualism, between masculinity and femininity. Quan Yin can represent a god and at the same time, Quan Yin can represent a goddess.
Quan Yin in Chinese temples in the context of this study is associated with the context of masculinity and femininity. Regarding the study of masculinity, Ahmadi (2017Ahmadi ( , 2022  separation technique found in art shows that art has a concept of nonduality that is contradictory to one another and is known as a binary opposition. From an anthropological perspective, this binary opposition is indeed a basic feature of art. Both are interrelated and mutually reinforcing to bring out aesthetics in art.
Starting from the explanation in this background, as far as researchers observe in the last three years, there has never been anyone who has examined Quan Yin from the perspective of symbols of masculinity and femininity associated with a psychoanthropological context. In this regard, the formulation of the problem in this study, namely

Theoretical Framework
Art (arts) is part of the area of anthropological study that is in great demand by anthropologists, both ancient art and modern art. Therefore, art can be viewed from an anthropological perspective, one of which is structural-anthropological. The theory was developed by Claude Lévi-Strauss. This theory is used by anthropologists to study culture as well as folklore/oral literature. As a theory, structural anthropology is seen and recognized as a holistic theory by some experts, for example, Geertz (2002) and Morris (2003) justify that structural anthropology can dismantle art that has high aesthetics. This holistic is due to the integration of the concepts of structure and anthropology. Thus, the method of approaching data is through a combination of the two. The approach to structure and anthropology results in the dismantling of symbols that so far have not been able to be dismantled by perspectives that use only one perspective, for example, structuralist.
Lévi-Strauss is of the view that structure is theoretical and explanatory. The theoretical structure has nothing to do with empirical reality. Indirect structure exists in these meanings and lies behind what we observe while producing. So, structure cannot be observed, but produces or causes observable. The relationship envisioned by Claude Lévi Strauss here is similar to that implied by Saussure between langue and parole (Strinati, 2007: 107). Because of that, Claude Lévi Strauss was able to dissect the aesthetic triadic relationship between myth and music, and poetry (Wiseman, 2007: 160-163) in-depth and aesthetically. That thought is what distinguishes Claude Lévi Strauss from his predecessors of anthropologists who relied more on anthropology. From the perspective of previous anthropologists, cultural studies can only be reviewed in depth from an astrological aspect without the help of other sciences.
Cultures that exist in society (especially local/typical/primitive communities) in various parts of the world have 'similarities' caused by the construction of the same mind (Strauss, 2001: 14;2005: 278). Lévi-Strauss reveals that elements of universalization (universalization) and particularization (particularization) exist in culture, both art and mythology (Strauss, 1962: 161) to give birth to a binary opposition. The concept of binary opposition in culture is a universal mental reflection (Dundes, 2007: 123)  social sanctions for society. These functions will work well if the supporting community does carry out these functions and obeys the rules contained in society.
Legend/art which has homology with the socio-cultural context is a social mediation to overcome conflict (Barnauw 1982: 254;Letcovitz 1989: 62-63). The community is looking for solutions to overcome the conflicts that exist in their socio-culture by channeling them into stories. The distribution is carried out in the form of an anthropological unconscious. Because of that, the mediation they do is sometimes not realized. Thus, this unstructured story can give rise to mediations that have a function for the supporting community (Ahmadi, 2012: 7). In this context, mediation can appear through story logic hidden behind story/art structures.
In this context, Structural-Anthropological theory is linked with Jungian-Psychology (Jung, 1981;1984), which is the area of study of psychoanalysis. In this context, Jungian psychology is used to understand the psychological aspects contained in psychological symbols. The psychological aspect is associated with the mediation function for the supporting community. This is done so that structural-anthropological analysis does not only stop at the cultural context but is also linked to psychology to make it more holistic. In Jung's view (2012), the human psyche is an archetype that is a basic characteristic so that over time it will still have permanent characteristics that change to different degrees. Because of that, archetypes that appear in various countries have similarities with certain countries. This is caused by the archetype.
Masculinity is the study of men and masculinity (Elliot, 2020; 2018) which is associated with various contexts in society, especially in terms of justice (between men and women). Masculinity as a study refers more to male studies related to health, strength, family, sex, (Connel, 1995), and socio-culture. Masculinity is rife along with resistance to femininity which is getting stronger. Currently, higher femininity has an impact on the birth of masculinity awareness. If in the past many women paid attention to personal health problems, while men did not pay much attention to personal health. Now, many men also pay attention to their health because they are already aware of their masculinity. The importance of health for oneself is one of the essences of masculinity that men must also pay attention to health.
This awareness of masculinity is not only due to the strengthening of femininity in modern society. However, the awareness of masculinity also strengthens along with men's understanding and philosophy about themselves. So far, men have somewhat neglected men compared to women. One of them is related to health. Men pay less attention to health problems than women. Men also need to pay attention to health, just like women. Therefore, men and women must be balanced in paying attention to various aspects of life, be it psychological, sociological, or anthropological. This shows that men and women have a nondual unity. Thus, masculinity is the opposition to femininity.
Psycho-anthropological studies are interdisciplinary studies between psychology and anthropology in interpreting texts/narratives related to psychology and anthropology.
Initially, this term was raised by Kundu (1974) who justified that psycho-anthropology is a psychological study associated with anthropology. This study can be conducted to examine art, literature, language, or cultural symbols found in society. Meanwhile, Stein (1988Stein ( , 1992 added that psycho-anthropology is closer to the study of psychoanalysis which is associated with the study of folklore. In this study, psycho-anthropology is a psychological study that is interconnected with anthropology to examine symbols contained in art, literature, or culture.

Method
In this study a descriptive-qualitative approach was used by presenting the data obtained by the authors from (a) research fields/locations, (b) references/texts, and (3) interviews with informants (Ahmadi, 2019(Ahmadi, , 2020 (2) classification, at this stage, the researcher classifies the results from the research location, interview results, and data collection at the research location; (3) analysis, at this stage the researcher analyzes the data using a psycho-anthropological perspective; (4) conclusion, at this stage the researcher concludes data based on the data analysis that has been done; and (5) verification, the last stage of the research, namely conducting verification related to the stages of analysis and research methods. If these stages have been fulfilled properly, the researcher conducts data presentation based on the results of the data verification that has been carried out.

History of the Birth of Quan Yin (Guanyin) in China
Avalokiteÿvara is widely known to the Chinese as Guanyin. Therefore, Chinese people are more familiar with Guanyin than Avalokiteÿvara. The figure of Guanyin was born in the pure land where Sakyamuni Buddha was (Paul, 1979: 254). In Indonesia, he is known as Quan Yin/Kwan Im. She is considered the goddess of compassion and the Goddess of mercy.
As a figure of the goddess of compassion, Kuan also vowed not to go to nirvana before her people were enlightened (Irons, 2008: 223). This shows that herself as a goddess is truly a goddess who is compassionate towards her people on Earth. As a goddess, Quan Yin is indeed the figure of the goddess best known by the Chinese people. them as a feminine (maternal) form (Mahäthera, 2007: 22). This shows that Quan Yin is a goddess who can transform. However, Blofeld (1978: 40) justifies that the Bodhisattva (Quan Yin) originating from India is manifested in the form of a man, but (during his journey) in China, the Bodhisattva (Quan Yin) is manifested as a woman. This indeed gave rise to many interpretations of the appearance of Quan Yin as a goddess. There is also an interpretation that Quan Yin who is configured with a thousand arms (in China) is a manifestation of Lord Shiva in India. However, some practitioners say that this is not entirely true.
If we look at it historically, accounts are showing that from 1500 BC there was already a legend of Quan Yin found in China. At that time, the figure of Quan Yin as a goddess appeared under the nickname Miaoshan (who was the daughter of the king of Miaozhuang).
Miaoshan as a child of the king has two older brothers, Miaoyin and Miaoyuan. When he grew up, Miaoshan was asked by the king to marry his parents' choice. However, Miaoshan at that time did not want his parents' choice. In a fit of rage, the king ordered his men to lock Miaoshan up in the monastery. The king's anger peaked because Miaoshan still did not want to marry his choice. The king also ordered the royal troops to burn Miaoshan along with 500 nuns in the monastery. After the arson, the 500 nuns disappeared without a trace. Only Miaoshan was left sitting upright reading the sutras and the blazing fire could not burn him.
Miaoshan's body is still intact as before. After that, Miaoshan was helped by the god of the earth. Furthermore, in the stage of enlightenment, Miaoshan visits hell (Dudbridge, 2004: 45-47) (Mahäthera, 2007). Later, Quan Yin returned to the mortal realm and helped mankind live in tribulation. He wants to help and assist humans on earth to be released from the suffering that has been shackled to humans.
People who are not familiar with Buddhist hagiology are often confused by the issue of Quan Yin gender (masculine and feminine) which is often manifested in white robes with long hair pulled up and crowned with a crown. The shape of the figure is decidedly feminine except that she has a masculine chest! This is as far as Quan Yin's humanity goes-man must not forget that he is the embodiment of karuôä, which transcends gender! To be in line with the philosophy of yin-yang balance, assume that Quan Yin is androgynous (Mahäthera, 2007: 23). Therefore, in a religious context, Quan Yin appears in masculine and feminine forms. On the one hand, Quan Yin appears in a masculine form. On the other hand, Quan Yin appears in a feminine form. In fact, in a way, Quan Yin appears in both forms because as a goddess she transcends both. This pagoda (eighth level) Quan Yin Temple is located on a mountainside. This temple is divided into three parts. First, on the outside, there is a statue (large size) of a sleeping Buddha, a guardian lion statue (which is a manifestation of the gods), stone-carved architecture that tells the story of Quan Yin's life, and a worship altar that uses dim lighting.

Second, on the inside (place of worship) there is a statue (large size) of the Thousand-Handed
Quan Yin which is located in the main hall. In that room, Quan Yin is described as having a thousand hands. Quan Yin's hands hold earthly objects. On the right side behind there are two statues of gods. On the inside, there is also some incense (located on the left and right of the statue of the god) which is lit so that it adds fragrance to the inside of the room.
The (Quan Yin) Temple (figure 1) is a temple that is said to have been built around the 1990s. The temple was built in a mountainous area because (Mahäthera, 2007: 23) in ancient Chinese philosophy, a mountain (considered a 'dragon') was a sacred place -an excellent place to erect a holy statue. Mahayana Buddhists tend to prefer tall temples in mountainous areas because they show their all-powerfulness. This custom is also a symbol that Avalokita means 'looking down (from a height)' in the sense of loving observation of mankind. This is indeed a characteristic that Buddhist temples are indeed on the slopes of mountains and their position is higher than the others because it shows 'divinity' who has a higher throne than the others. The Quan Yin Temple is without a pagoda in the same way that a Quan Yin Temple with a pagoda is located on a mountainside. In this context, the mountain is indeed the choice for a place of worship. This temple is also divided into two parts. First, at the front, in this section, there is an altar of worship, a stone carving of a lotus flower (lotus) symbolizing Quan Yin. The inside, the shrine room. Inside, there is a statue (large size) of Quan Yin. In that room, Quan Yin is depicted as feminine, with long hair, carrying long leaves.
Quan Yin Temple (picture 2), according to Monk Wang Wei Li (50 years old), is a temple built in 1994. The age of the temple is still young. Because of that, at the back of the temple (right side), several buildings are still being built for worship facilities. When the researchers collected data at the research location, on the back (left side) they were still in the process of trimming the cliff land where the building was planned to be built as well.

Dyadic Structure
The 2009: 332; Freud, 1955: 211) which shows the masculinity. The symbolism of towering, tall, and large pagoda is a symbol of masculinity, might, and strength. Not everyone agrees with the interpretation of this symbol because, in the context of the creator, they do it through their subconscious. Thus, the emergence of the creation of the pagoda is not a manifestation of the creator who represents the pagoda, but unconsciously the creator of the pagoda sublimates the symbol of masculinity in the form of a pagoda. In addition to the pagoda, in the Quan Yin temple, there is a Thousand Hands. Quan Yin with a Thousand Hands can help all the sufferings of mankind. in this context, the Thousand Hands is more masculine. The masculine reinforcement is strengthened by the pagoda.
As for the second Quan Yin temple, there is no pagoda. Around the temple area, there is a lotus (lotus) architecture in the fenced area and the inner area. Lotus is a visualization of happiness, romance, growth/development/blooming, and universal wisdom/tenderness/compassion (Seaman, 2006: 126;Watson, 1993: 53). The transformation of the lotus shows that Quan Yin is a goddess of compassion. Thus, Quan Yin represents femininity. The terms lotus and lotus are almost the same because both grow in water.
However, the difference is that the lotus has round flowers and irregular leaves. As for the lotus, on the other hand, its leaves are sharp and regular. In the view of Chinese society, the lotus which is categorized as a flower is more towards feminine elements than masculine. Flowers have always been a feminine rather than masculine symbol. Lotus is pure white and able to live in mud, even when the ground is dry, lotus can still survive. In addition to white, there is also a red lotus. This type of lotus is the  (Morris, 2006:2). Thus, the lotus symbol is very ancient in religious teachings or a cultural context. The lotus symbol is also used by Hindus in a slightly different form, namely the trident. In this context, the lotus appears earlier in Hinduism than in Buddhism. However, an element of resemblance to the lotus symbol is still there. The symbol undergoes migration and transformation along with users and the times.

Dyadic Structure
The first and second temples produce a dyadic structure as shown in the following figure.Pagoda temples-temples without pagodas Masculine-feminine Strong-gentle Closed (introversion)-open (extroversion) Anima-Animus.
The Quan Yin (Thousand-Handed) Temple with a pagoda and Quan Yin Temple without a pagoda is an absolute form of binary opposition because the pagoda is opposed to not pagoda. In this context, there is no term 'semi pagoda'. Therefore, the binary opposition that appears is in the form of a dyadic structure (two). The appearance of the masculine element in the first temple was caused by (1) a statue of Quan Yin (Thousand Hands) depicted/impressed as male. The Quan Yin (Thousand-Handed) statue is made of a mighty and strong model, but actually, the impression is more towards the masculine form; and (2) the pagoda which symbolizes the penis (phallus) and the power which is also symbolized by a thousand hands. The lotus symbolizes women, the feminine side in Quan Yin. This structure is opposed to the feminine element in the second temple due to (1) a Quan Yin statue which is depicted as having a beautiful 'impression' face wearing white clothes, long hair, and holding a long leaf. The statue is more towards the feminine form, and (2)  animus (male soul in a woman's soul), both are interconnected and mutually reinforcing (Jung, 1989: 144), intersect with each other and eventually give birth to that which is adequate in man. Thus, adequacy will bring out a very high and holy (sacred) power.

Collective Mediation Function
The collective mediation function is a function of the collective society that supports Jungian's thinking (Jung, 1981: 355), the term is called a mandala of a complete circle that cannot be solved. There is a unified whole that cannot be broken. He is the 'There' who is in the 'Nothingness'. The term mandala used by Carl G. Jung a psychologist who believes in In addition, the appearance of Quan Yin who is masculinized symbolizes that men are strong and mighty. If it is culturally drawn, this is related to the culture of Chinese society which leads to a patriarchal culture. Chinese society in the past and in modern times still tends to favor men as someone who has power. In addition, men are also considered as leaders. That way, women seem marginalized, either directly or indirectly. This can be seen in everyday life that a husband and wife prefer their son to be born as a boy, not a girl. Based on the research results of Tsomo, et al (2004: 2) it shows that even within the Buddhist structure, nuns do not yet get a proper/high position when compared to (male) monks.
Therefore, in this context, the appearance of Quan Yin which is feminized by the symbolism of the lotus which means gentle and compassionate represents that women can also become leaders, not just men. Thus, a leader is not only needed to have might but also gentleness within. If the two are intertwined into one, it will create a natural balance.

Conclution
Based on the explanation presented in advance, this research can be concluded as follows. First, the structure that emerges in Quan Yin symbolism in the psychoanthropological context, namely the dyadic structure which is divided into oppositions (i) pagoda temples-temples without pagodas, (ii) masculine-feminine, (iii) strong-soft, (iv ) closed ( Second, the symbolism of Quan Yin has a collective mediating function for its supporting community. The collective mediation function of this symbolism is that Quan Yin has symbolism/figuration and this shows that Quan Yin is indeed the highest and surpasses gods or goddesses. Because of that, he can manifest/become anything to help humanity on Earth. In addition, the appearance of Quan Yin who is masculinized symbolizes that men are strong and mighty. This is related to the culture of Chinese society which leads to patriarchal culture. That way, women seem marginalized, either directly or indirectly.
Therefore, the appearance of Quan Yin which is feminine with the symbolism of the lotus which means gentle and compassionate represents that women can also become leaders, not just men.
This research is universally expected to be able to contribute related to literary studies about psycho-anthropology. This research shows that the symbol of masculinity and femininity in the temple is a dualism that cannot be separated. This dualism produces balance in life. The concepts of masculinity and femininity are not much different from the concepts of yin and yang in Chinese society. The concept of yin and yang represents two different sides of life, but side by side so that they can produce natural balance and balance of life.